Table 1 Various fabrication techniques for biomaterial scaffolds

Tissue decellularisation

Tissues with high ECM content, e.g. trachea, heart valves

Native composition (ECM), retains mechanical properties and shape of organ

Immunogenicity due to incomplete decellularisation, loss of ECM, requires donor organ

[5, 10, 78]

Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) processing

Drug delivery, hard and soft tissue engineering, wound healing

Fibres, particles and encapsulated particle production, biocompatible, biodegradable, manufacturing parameters adjustable to tailor product, control over pore size and distribution

Inhomogeneous distribution of seeded cells

[5, 10, 13, 79, 80]

Electrospinning

Drug delivery, hard and soft tissue engineering, wound healing

Production of fibres and encapsulated fibres, high porosity, surface area, biocompatible and biodegradable, manufacturing parameters adjustable to tailor product

Inhomogeneous distribution of seeded cells

[81, 82]

Hydrogels

Scaffolds for cartilage, connective tissue and soft tissue bioengineering, cell delivery, drug delivery, wound healing

Tuneable biodegradability, biomimicry, biocompatible, improves cellular interactions, mimics native ECM, injectable, self-assembly possible in response to pH and temperature, can be incorporated with other materials

Limited mechanical properties, sensitive to the surrounding environment

[5, 10, 15, 28–31]

Thermally induced phase separation (TIPS)

Microparticles for tissue engineering, cell delivery, drug delivery

High porosity, biocompatible, biodegradable, 3D scaffold, manufacturing parameters adjustable to tailor product, interconnected porous network, cell proliferation, injectable

Limited open space through scaffold, inhomogeneous size particles, particle aggregation

[10, 11, 80]

3D printing

Fully developed constructs

Complex structures mechanically similar to native tissue, fast processing

Limited materials, post-processing

[4, 14, 27]