Tissue decellularisation
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Tissues with high ECM content, e.g. trachea, heart valves
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Native composition (ECM), retains mechanical properties and shape of organ
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Immunogenicity due to incomplete decellularisation, loss of ECM, requires donor organ
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[5, 10, 78]
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Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) processing
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Drug delivery, hard and soft tissue engineering, wound healing
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Fibres, particles and encapsulated particle production, biocompatible, biodegradable, manufacturing parameters adjustable to tailor product, control over pore size and distribution
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Inhomogeneous distribution of seeded cells
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[5, 10, 13, 79, 80]
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Electrospinning
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Drug delivery, hard and soft tissue engineering, wound healing
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Production of fibres and encapsulated fibres, high porosity, surface area, biocompatible and biodegradable, manufacturing parameters adjustable to tailor product
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Inhomogeneous distribution of seeded cells
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[81, 82]
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Hydrogels
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Scaffolds for cartilage, connective tissue and soft tissue bioengineering, cell delivery, drug delivery, wound healing
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Tuneable biodegradability, biomimicry, biocompatible, improves cellular interactions, mimics native ECM, injectable, self-assembly possible in response to pH and temperature, can be incorporated with other materials
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Limited mechanical properties, sensitive to the surrounding environment
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[5, 10, 15, 28–31]
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Thermally induced phase separation (TIPS)
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Microparticles for tissue engineering, cell delivery, drug delivery
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High porosity, biocompatible, biodegradable, 3D scaffold, manufacturing parameters adjustable to tailor product, interconnected porous network, cell proliferation, injectable
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Limited open space through scaffold, inhomogeneous size particles, particle aggregation
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[10, 11, 80]
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3D printing
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Fully developed constructs
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Complex structures mechanically similar to native tissue, fast processing
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Limited materials, post-processing
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[4, 14, 27]
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